Vitamins

Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some have hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism (e.g., vitamin D), or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (e.g., some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins (e.g., B complex vitamins) function as precursors for enzyme cofactors, that help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. Vitamins may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid carries various forms of carbon group – methyl, formyl, and methylene – in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.

Vitamin generic descriptor name	Vitamer chemical name(s) (list not complete)	Solubility	Recommended dietary allowances (male, age 19–70)[20]	Deficiency disease	Upper Intake Level (UL/day)[20]	Overdose disease	Food sources
Vitamin A	Retinol, retinal, and four carotenoids including beta carotene	Fat	900 µg	Night-blindness, Hyperkeratosis, and Keratomalacia[21]	3,000 µg	Hypervitaminosis A	Orange, ripe yellow fruits, leafy vegetables, carrots, pumpkin, squash, spinach, liver
Vitamin B1	Thiamine	Water	1.2 mg	Beriberi, Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome	N/D[22]	Drowsiness or muscle relaxation with large doses.[23]	Pork, oatmeal, brown rice, vegetables, potatoes, liver, eggs
Vitamin B2	Riboflavin	Water	1.3 mg	Ariboflavinosis	N/D		Dairy products, bananas, popcorn, green beans, asparagus
Vitamin B3	Niacin, niacinamide	Water	16.0 mg	Pellagra	35.0 mg	Liver damage (doses > 2g/day)[24] and other problems	Meat, fish, eggs, many vegetables, mushrooms, tree nuts
Vitamin B5	Pantothenic acid	Water	5.0 mg[25]	Paresthesia	N/D	Diarrhea; possibly nausea and heartburn.[26]	Meat, broccoli, avocados
Vitamin B6	Pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal	Water	1.3–1.7 mg	Anemia[27] peripheral neuropathy.	100 mg	Impairment of proprioception, nerve damage (doses > 100 mg/day)	Meat, vegetables, tree nuts, bananas
Vitamin B7	Biotin	Water	30.0 µg	Dermatitis, enteritis	N/D		Raw egg yolk, liver, peanuts, certain vegetables
Vitamin B9	Folic acid, folinic acid	Water	400 µg	Megaloblast and Deficiency during pregnancy is associated with birth defects, such as neural tube defects	1,000 µg	May mask symptoms of vitamin B12 deficiency; other effects.	Leafy vegetables, pasta, bread, cereal, liver
Vitamin B12	Cyanocobalamin, hydroxycobalamin, methylcobalamin	Water	2.4 µg	Megaloblastic anemia[28]	N/D	Acne-like rash [causality is not conclusively established].	Meat and other animal products
Vitamin C	Ascorbic acid	Water	90.0 mg	Scurvy	2,000 mg	Vitamin C megadosage	Many fruits and vegetables, liver
Vitamin D	Cholecalciferol	Fat	5.0 µg–10 µg[29]	Rickets and Osteomalacia	50 µg	Hypervitaminosis D	Fish, eggs, liver, mushrooms
Vitamin E	Tocopherols, tocotrienols	Fat	15.0 mg	Deficiency is very rare; mild hemolytic anemia in newborn infants.[30]	1,000 mg	Increased congestive heart failure seen in one large randomized study.[31]	Many fruits and vegetables
Vitamin K	phylloquinone, menaquinones	Fat	120 µg	Bleeding diathesis	N/D	Increases coagulation in patients taking warfarin.[32]	Leafy green vegetables such as spinach, egg yolks, liver

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